Structure and function of hard carbon negative electrodes for sodium-ion batteries

Abstract Practical utilisation of renewable energy from intermittent sustainable sources such as solar and wind relies on safe, reliable, cost-effective, high-capacity storage systems to be incorporated into the grid. Among most promising technologies aimed towards this application are sodium-ion batteries(SIBs). Currently, hard carbon is leading negative electrode material for SIBs given its relatively good electrochemical performance low cost. Furthermore, can produced a diverse range readily available waste biomass making an ideal circular economy. In facilitating future developments use carbon-based materials SIBs, review curates several analytical techniques that have been useful in providing structure-property insight stresses need overall assessment based combination complementary techniques. It also emphasises key challenges characterisation carbons how various situ operando help unravel those by us with better understanding these during operation thereby allowing design high-performance next-generation batteries.